A Paper On Customer Satisfaction

Showcasing Is a hierarchical capacity and a lot of procedures for making, imparting and conveying esteems to clients and for overseeing client connections In manners that advantage the association and its partners. These qualities are identified with a monetary measurement and the mental component of the said advertising definition. Similar measurements talk about apparent cost through exchange esteems and subjective and full of feeling effects on brand decision and emotional influences.This meaning of promoting prompts the significance and basic jobs of clients impression of corporate Images and notoriety prompting consumer loyalty as an Intermediary to client devotion. This Is done In pertinence with the conviction and certainty that clients are the essential ‘assets' of a market and not simply the item. With clients being fulfilled, or in the event that clients show an elevated level of fulfillment, at that point just can the market for the specific item develop. This thus c an prompt client faithfulness and dependability goal. What is Customer Satisfaction?Customer Satisfaction Is supposed to have the option to Increase item deals and realize satisfaction reaction. It is a Judgment that an item or administration highlight, or the decrease itself, gave or is giving a pleasurable degree of utilization related satisfaction including levels of under or over-satisfaction. † It is the level of experience that a client gets from a decent or administration gave by a market. In this manner ‘Customer Satisfaction' is the proportion of this level of understanding or delight of clients estimated by the quantity of rehashed clients who over and over utilize the merchandise or service.It is likewise observed that consumer loyalty prompts the clients being faithful to the item or administration along these lines consequently be faithful to the specific brand of the item. It can likewise be utilized as a proportion of steadfastness expectation. Oliver(1997 ) characterized client's steadfastness as â€Å"a profound held duty to rebury or re-belittle a favored item or administration reliably later on, along these lines causing monotonous same brand or same brand-set buying, regardless of situational impacts and showcasing endeavors that can possibly cause exchanging conduct. Reliability at that point is the expectation or the client's conduct to rebury a similar item or administration from a specific source (accordingly connecting to a brand) in light of the fulfillment that the person in question accomplished from utilizing the item/administration over and again. For what reason is Customer Satisfaction Important? Discussing consumer loyalty, one must comprehend why consumer loyalty is significant. In posing that inquiry the accompanying reasons come up dependent on research. The primary concern is on the grounds that consumer loyalty as a proportion of dedication expectation and client maintenance is a main marker and a point differe ntiator.Studying consumer loyalty or performing consumer loyalty reviews yields a superior comprehension of client lifetime esteem and decreases client stir. In saying as much, keeping and making old clients fulfilled is significantly less expensive than securing new ones. Satisfying clients decreases negative informal exchange for the item or administration and hence doesn't influence the item or administration contrarily. Then again, with fulfilled and cheerful clients verbal exchange would empower a securing of a lot progressively different clients who would then be able to be changed to fulfilled clients and afterward into completely fulfilled customers.Retaining clients who are fulfilled isn't a very remarkable issue, it is those clients who frequently have issues with the items or administrations offered that should be investigated. Assume if a ‘satisfaction' overview is completed on a specific item, and the outcome gives a rundown if any clients who are not happy with t he item or who gives a low appraising for the item; at that point one must investigate how and why they are unsatisfied with the item. One can keep a watch list on these clients and catch up with various inquiries in order to decide why they are not satisfied.In knowing this, the brand can know the real number of individuals who have plan of repurchase and of the individuals who are really faithful to the brand. The fundamental contrast between rivals in a market is their capacity to hold and fulfill those clients who keep on being with them. Bringing consumer loyalty as a primary procedure or a center purpose of activity for a brand can be a hindering element for at least two contenders offering a similar assistance or item. Take for instance Competitor An and Competitor B both contribution Product X.A client C would go for both of the contender's Product X if C would have gotten input from another client (state D) if D would have given a positive criticism to given a positive verb al input to C of the Product X from Competitor An if the contender A had offered or given a significant level of fulfillment to the client D. In this way the primary separating factor for C for picking item X from An and B would profoundly rely upon the proposal from D. This is what is implied by procuring new clients and holding old ones dependent on client satisfaction.Studies have demonstrated that completely fulfilled clients are more faithful to a brand than Just fulfilled clients. The Customer Lifetime Value (CLC) which can return benefit from a client dependent on forecast of spending of the client on a specific item or administration is diverse for absolutely and Just fulfilled clients. Simply fulfilled clients can and eight deformity to different items or benefits and have a lower CLC. This is on the grounds that with simply fulfilled clients, odds of new items from contenders who offer better administrations and advantages may make them move from their ordinary image and p roducts.This can be ascribed with the impact of the new item credits that charmed them to move or as a result of the absence of maintenance ability of the current brand. On account of completely fulfilled clients in any case, another item or administration with preferable offers and advantages over the current brand isn't sufficient to discourage them to take a move. This may be because of the high reliability they have towards their present image due to their significant levels of fulfillment they accomplished from utilizing the item or administration or as a result of the brand's ability to hold them by fusing consumer loyalty systems in their business plans.Thus we can see that Just fulfilled clients are happy to move to different items more promptly than completely fulfilled clients. Markets ought to have the option to recognize these two and figure techniques to change over Just fulfilled to completely fulfilled clients which can raise the Customer Lifetime Value and in this ma nner increment benefit. Consistency as a Customer Satisfaction Tool For a brand to have the option to hold clients and to make them fulfilled and upbeat, consistency is one of the significant courses in accomplishing all out client satisfaction.The consistency that the paper discusses is the predictable fulfillment of a client and its proportion of connection to the general whole of consumer loyalty over some undefined time frame. This is rather than the proportion of a five point scale fulfillment review of individual clients. In estimating this fulfillment consistency, we measure the confirmation levels of an individual client for a specific item or administration gave by a specific brand over their proceeded with use and repurchase of the item or brand. This gives us a superior comprehension of the client's reaction to the item or administration however out the client lifetime value.With expanding utilization of the item the client can either be fulfilled, completely fulfilled or be disappointed with the item. This examination dependent on consistency would then be able to be converted into techniques or plans to empower the brand to hold the disappointed client, convert the Just affirmed and improve the completely fulfilled client. All through the clients' lifetime with the item the brands steady work to give them fantastic and easy assistance and a predictable help component can guarantee most extreme consumer loyalty. Anyway not all brands can offer and convey the same.Having a positive client experience feelings enveloped in a sentiment of trust-were the greatest drivers of fulfillment and devotion in a larger part of enterprises. Consistency with clients seeing someone, administrations and relations is critical to fashion trust brands' client pool. An organization's image is driven by more than the mix of guarantees made and kept. It is additionally basic to guarantee clients perceive the conveyance of those guarantees. This requires imparting and key messages that reliably feature conveyance and themes.In this case client's discernments and perspectives on the brand are strengthened. This thus produces altruism in the brains of the clients in this way driving into a fulfillment level however the correspondence of these satisfying guarantees and on time showcase interchanges to strengthen encounters. Connection among Price and Satisfaction Say a client A was going and needed to stop to remain for a night. The inn that he remained charged him an excessive sum as the room lease and different charges and this made A be disturbed and subsequently disappointed with the hotel.But due to the earnest necessity he needed to endure it. In any case, in remaining at the inn he discovered that the general help of the lodging, the staffs and the offices gave were considerably more than he foreseen. When requested to rate the lodging he gave it a ten out of ten. This is a case of how cost can be identified with fulfillment. In any case, this is n't the situation with most items and administrations. Clients frequently expect great deals and administrations when they follow through on a robust cost for an item. On the off chance that the item performs they are bound to proceed with the utilization of a similar item and prescribe the equivalent to others.The inverse is the situation if the item doesn't meet the essential necessities the client had as a main priority while payi

Residential Schools Essay -- Canadian Education, Canadian Government

Contextual investigation: Residential Schools Looking at the private educational system in Canada between the 1870s and 1996 uncovered various human rights and common freedoms infringement of people by the legislature. This contextual investigation includes both by law separation and true segregation experienced by Aboriginals dependent on their way of life. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms explicitly secures Aboriginal rights under area 25 and segment 15 proclaims that, â€Å"Every individual is equivalent under the steady gaze of and under the law† (Sharpe and Roach, 2009, p. 307). Human rights and common freedoms of Aboriginal youngsters and guardians were disregarded and abused by private schools which were fuelled by government approach, plans of chapel associations, and an open want to absorb the local populace into Canadian culture. Government Policy Absorbing the native populace into Canadian culture was viewed as the best answer for killing the expenses related with this section of society getting assets for being dependents of the government. When the way toward forming understudies into perfect residents has been finished, they would be allowed full citizenship and naturally liberates them. The expulsion settlement rights and clan connection would imply that the government is not, at this point confronted with the budgetary weight related with thinking about these people groups (Akhtar, 2010, p. 113). Since kids can possibly effectively adjust to circumstances, they are ideal possibility for socialization programs which slide them into society. At the point when the approach of forceful human progress was upheld by the Canadian government, open subsidizing opened up for the private school venture which included stripping native offspring of their cultur... ...ess to the issue and perceiving the issues with this strategy will help forestall further infringement of rights and freedoms. End The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms is set up to guarantee the residents of Canada are shielded from outlandish infringement by the legislature. At the point when the osmosis approach was embraced there was no real way to decide the sweeping impacts that it would have on native youngsters and their families. After some time cultural perspectives change and the strategies are legitimately influenced so this sort of human rights infringement would be less worthy. Stirring things up can achieve change and carry attention to a point that was regularly ignored. In a country which prides it’s self on being a multicultural mosaic, private schools fuelled by arrangement, strict associations and people in general ought to be blasted down for all time.

Biography of Influential Psychologist Clark Hull

Biography of Influential Psychologist Clark Hull October 18, 2019 More in Psychology History and Biographies Psychotherapy Basics Student Resources Theories Phobias Emotions Sleep and Dreaming Clark Hull was a psychologist known for his drive theory and research on human motivation. Through his teaching, Hull also had an impact on a number of other well-known and influential psychologists including Kenneth Spence, Neal Miller, and Albert Bandura. In a 2002 ranking of some of the most influential psychologists of the 20th century, Hull was listed as the 21st most frequently cited psychologist.   Learn more about his life, career, and contributions to the field of psychology. Fast Facts: Clark Hull Born: May 24, 1884 in Akron, New YorkDied: May 10, 1952 in New Haven, ConnecticutKnown For: Drive reduction theory, Behaviorism, research on hypnosisEducation: University of Michigan (undergraduate and graduate degrees) University of Wisconsin-Madison (Ph.D.) Early Life Clark Leonard Hull’s early life was marked by bouts of illness. He was born in New York and raised on a farm in rural Michigan. His early education occurred at a one-room schoolhouse, where he would also teach for one year after graduating before continuing his schooling at Alma Academy. After graduating from the academy, his education was delayed for a year due to a severe case of typhoid fever. At age 24, he contracted polio and became permanently paralyzed in his left leg, leaving him reliant on an iron brace and cane to walk. He had originally planned to study engineering, but his health struggles led him to turn his interests toward psychology. While his poor health and financial struggles led to several interruptions in his education, he eventually earned his bachelor’s and master’s degrees from the University of Michigan. In 1918, he was awarded his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Hulls Career and Theories After completing his Ph.D., Hull remained at the University of Wisconsin-Madison to teach. During this time, he began researching the measurement and prediction of aptitude and published his book Aptitude Testing in 1928. In 1929, he took a position at Yale University where he would continue to work for the rest of his career. He became one of the first psychologists to empirically study hypnosis. During this time, he also began to develop what would eventually become his drive theory of behavior. Hull drew on the ideas and research of a number of thinkers including Charles Darwin, Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and Edward L. Thorndike. Pioneering Psychologist John B. Watson and Behavorism Like other behaviorists, Hull believed that all behavior could be explained by conditioning principles. According to Hull’s drive reduction theory, biological deprivation creates needs. These needs activate drives which then motivate behavior. The resulting behavior is goal-directed, since achieving these goals aids in the survival of the organism. Hull was influenced by Darwin and believed that the evolutionary process impacted these drives and resulting behaviors. He suggested that learning occurred when reinforcement of behaviors resulted in meeting some type of survival need. For example, basic needs such as hunger and thirst cause organisms to seek out satisfaction for these needs by eating and drinking. These drives are then temporarily reduced. It is this reduction of drives that serves as reinforcement for the behavior. According to Hull, behavior is the result of the continual and complex interaction of the organism and the environment. Contributions to the Field of Psychology Hull’s drive reduction theory served as a general theory of learning that helped inspire further work by other researchers. For example, Miller and Dollard applied Hull’s basic theory more broadly to include social learning and imitation. However, they suggested that motivating stimuli did not necessarily need to be tied to the survival needs of an organism. How Social Learning Theory Works Clark Hull also influenced a number of other psychologists. He became one of the most frequently cited psychologists during the 1940s and 1950s. Prior to the cognitive revolution of the 1960s, his theories had a more dominant influence in American psychology. He also advised a number of graduate students who went on to make significant contributions to psychology including Neal Miller, O. H. Mowrer, Carl I. Hovland, and Kenneth Spence. While the specifics of his theories have fallen out of favor in psychology, his emphasis on experimental methods set a high standard for future researchers. Selected Publications Hull, C. (1933). Hypnosis and Suggestibility: An Experimental Approach. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Hull, C. (1943). Principles of Behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Hull, C. et al. (1940). Mathematico-Deductive Theory of Rote Learning. New Haven, NJ: Yale University Press.

Euthanasia Not Morally Acceptable Essay - 1646 Words

Abstract In the following essay, I argue that euthanasia is not morally acceptable because it always involves killing, and undermines intrinsic value of human being. The moral basis on which euthanasia defends its position is contradictory and arbitrary in that its moral values represented in such terms as ‘mercy killing’, ‘dying with dignity’, ‘good death’ and ‘right for self-determination’ fail to justify taking one’s life. Introduction Among other moral issues, euthanasia emerged with modern medical advancement, which allows us ever more control over not only our life but also death. Euthanasia is an especially sensitive issue because it deals with the death and the killing of a person. In this paper, I argue that euthanasia is†¦show more content†¦In response to ‘mercy killing’, it is clear by our common moral intuition that the first premise is wrong because killing is bad. If mercy is a moral rule for advocating euthanasia, and if the purpose of granting mercy is to relieving all suffering of the dying patients, the action of killing can not be a justifiable consequence for mercy. As for the second premise, it seems to be agreeable as long as it concerns with life. However, when it comes to death, the claim that a doctor has a right to grant mercy upon a patient is questionable. According to the premise, if a doctor judges that no medical means can cure the disease and bring alleviation of the patient’s suffering, the best choice which a doctor can offer mercy upon a patient is following the will of patient and helping him or her end own life. Similarly, in the case of involuntary euthanasia, a doctor can be merciful by withdrawing any life assisting equipments from the hopeless patients, hastening a death instead of prolonging painful dying process. In comparison with euthanasia of a person, ‘mercy killing’ is applied to an animal with little opposition. It is mostly accepted on the assumption that human is in the position of granting mercy upon suffering animals, implying humans’ superiority over animals. And it is more often a reality that ‘mercy killing’ is accepted for purely utilitarian reasons. Obviously enough, an animal case is totally different from a human case. NobodyShow MoreRelated Is Euthanasia Morally Acceptable? Essay2334 Words   |  10 PagesWould it be morally acceptable to end their suffering? Questions like these are debated by those considering the morality of euthanasia, which is a very controversial topics in America. Euthanasia can be defined as â€Å"bringing about the death of another person to somehow benefit that person† (Pojman). The term implies that the death is intentional. Because there are several different types of euthanasia, it is difficult to ma ke a blanket statement concerning the morality of euthanasia. This paperRead MoreThe And Passive Euthanasi Active And Non Voluntary1368 Words   |  6 PagesThis is the definition of euthanasia provided by the Oxford English dictionary, but euthanasia is an issue encompassing much more controversy than just whether killing is right or wrong. Euthanasia can be voluntary or non voluntary yet it can also be active and passive, I will be arguing whether or not there is a distinction between these two and if so whether that distinction is morally significant. I will begin by defining active and passive euthanasia: active euthanasia is where a medical professionalRead MoreThe Morality Of Euthanasia By James Rachels1086 Words   |  5 PagesActive Euthanasia Does James Rachels in â€Å"The Morality of Euthanasia† successfully argue that in at least some cases active euthanasia is morally acceptable? Explain his view and respond to it. In this essay, we are going to analyze the main ideas included in â€Å"The Morality of Euthanasia† by James Rachels to provide a response to the following question: Does James Rachels in â€Å"The Morality of Euthanasia† successfully argue that in at least some cases active euthanasia is morally acceptable? HavingRead MoreEssay on Utilitarianism and the Case for Euthanasia1353 Words   |  6 PagesUnitarianism and the Case for Euthanasia One of greatest moral issues facing society today is that of freedom. Freedom is a principle that this country was founded on at the start of its inception. Freedom is still a cause that requires our attention. The great debate on simple liberties such as the right to decide what happens to one’s body is still an issue that society has failed to resolve. It is a moral quandary that will continue to be discussed and a deliberated on as long as humankind areRead MoreEuthanasia Is Not Morally Wrong1528 Words   |  7 Pagesfails the five point personhood test is not morally wrong, regardless of how or why someone would choose to do so. I find an objection to Warren’s view because it is absurd and it could lead to controversial actions on behalf of her view’s followers. In most, if not all cases, of nonvoluntary active euthanasia the doctor who performs the euthanasia is charged with murder. This is because almost every country in the world has made nonvoluntary act ive euthanasia, where a patient wishes not to die but isRead MoreEuthanasi The End Product Of An Ill Individual979 Words   |  4 PagesEuthanasia transpires to be the end product of an ill individual’s life with the intention of releasing them of their misery. It happens to be typical for an individual to undergo euthanasia for the reason of an inoperable illness they may have. There are various occurrences where individuals have the desire to terminate their lives at their request, whereas a selection of individuals become extremely ill and the decision stands to be made by the next of kin, medical team, or the court dependingRead MoreIs Euthanasia Morally Justifiable?1657 Words   |  7 PagesThe term euthanasia is used differently by most people. Personally, I use it to include all forms of assisted suicide. The question for most people is whether euthanasia can be morally justified. Many people consider this practice to be against all ethics. This is despite whether co mpassion was the motive or otherwise. There are many dynamics that are involved when a person requires it to alleviate extreme pain or a condition that is considered to be torture towards the person experiencing it. ThereRead MoreThe Theory Of Utilitarianism By John Stuart Mill1659 Words   |  7 Pagesdecision. A large controversial topic involving utilitarianism is terminal illness and whether euthanasia is acceptable or unacceptable. Furthermore, within this paper the discussion of whether utility is morally acceptable will explain why life is more than just pleasure and pain. The claim of this paper is to examine the process of utilitarianism and demonstrate how this type of lifestyle is overall morally unacceptable. As previously stated, I believe that utilitarianism is not a very moral way toRead MoreArguments Against Euthanasia Essay851 Words   |  4 PagesArguments on Euthanasia In this paper, I will be presenting the opposing arguments on Euthanasia, the controversial issue of terminally ill patients committing suicide with the assistance of a physician. One of the main arguments for euthanasia is that people have the right to die. Many people for euthanasia have the mindset that humans have the right to control his or her body and life and therefore have the freedom to choose how, where and when they will die. This belief stems from the idea ofRead MoreVoluntary Active Euthanasia Essay1010 Words   |  5 PagesWhat is morally permissible? Voluntary Active Euthanasia is a controversial subject, Does one have the right to end their own life? According to Peter Singer in â€Å"Voluntary Euthanasia: A utilitarian Perspective,† Voluntary Active Euthanasia is morally permissible under certain circumstances. If and only if certain requirements are met by certain parties can the process of voluntary active euthanasia be completed. Certain situations where Voluntary Active Euthanasia is morally permissible include;

Article 226 And The High Courts - 1480 Words

The Supreme Court under Article 32 and the High Courts under Article 226 of the Constitution have passed a number of orders and directions for this concern. Like the conversion of all public transport in the Metropolitan City of Delhi from diesel engine to CNG engine on the basis of the order of the High Court of Delhi to ensure that the pollution level is mitigated and this is being totally observed for the last several years. Now only vehicles running on Compressed Natural Gas are given permission to ply on Delhi roads for public transport. Louise Erdrich Bigogress, who is an environmentalist has quite aptly observed that grass and sky are two canvasses into which the rich details of the earth are drawn. In 1980s, the courts paid special attention to the problem of environmental degradation and passed a number of directions and orders to make sure the that environment ecology, wildlife are saved, preserved and protected. Every day hundreds of thousands of industries are functioning without pollution control procudures. Lakhs of Indians work in mines and do hazardous work without proper safety protection. Each day lakhs of litres of harmful raw discharged effluents are dumped into our rivers and lakhs of tons of hazardous waste is simply dumped on the Earth. The environment around us, as a result become so degraded, that instead of nurturing us it is now poisoning us. In this context, in many cases, the Supreme Court has intervened in the issued and has issued manyShow MoreRelatedPower Of The State Organs Essay1739 Wor ds   |  7 PagesPower of judicial review makes Supreme Court guardian of not only fundamental rights but the constitution itself. However, at the time of enactment of the constitution, the Supreme Court derived its power to review the acts via article 13, article 226 and article 245 mainly. Article 13 declares that any law which contravenes any of the provisions of part –III {Fundamental Rights} shall be null and void. Articles 32 and 226 entrust Supreme Court and High Courts with roles of the protector and guarantorRead MoreLaw of Writs1643 Words   |  7 PagesLaw of Writs In common law, a writ is a formal written order issued by a body with administrative or judicial jurisdiction. In modern usage, this body is generally a court. Writs are extraordinary legal remedies offered to individuals who do not obtain adequate protection under ordinary law. The main types of writs are warrants and prerogative but there are many others also. Writs under English law The origin of writs can be drawn from the English judicial system. The law of writs has itsRead MoreJudicial Control of Administrative Action in India and Writs2064 Words   |  9 Pagescontrol is become an important area of the administrative law as because the judicial department i.e. Courts have proved to be the more effective and beneficiary branch than any other Parliamentary or Legislative or Administrative action for the purpose of the controlling the administrative action in India. In this regard Prof. Jain Jain rightly quoted that, â€Å"the real kernel of democracy lies in the courts enjoying the ultimate authority to restrain all exercise of absolute and arbitrary power. WithoutRead MoreEarly Cases Of Judicial Activism. The Following Supreme1554 Words   |  7 PagesEARLY CASES OF JUDICIAL ACTIVISM The following Supreme Court cases provide a useful insight into the growth and development of judicial activism in independent India. In the Privy Purse case Madhav Rao Jivaji Rao Scindia Union of India the broad question was whether the President rightly exercised his power in de-recognising the princes. In this case, the court ruled that by virtue of Article 53 of the constitution, the executive power of union vested in the President must be exercised â€Å"in accordanceRead MoreApplication of the Analytical School of Justice1805 Words   |  7 PagesAustin’s critics ask, how customs can be resigned with the theory of command, and where we can find a supreme law-giver in a nascent society. The concept of fundamental rights and their enforcement mechanism is an example of supreme law. The Supreme Court of India while interpreting the Fundamental Rights has expanded the scope of these rights to extents which were never imagined by our constitutional makers. The legislature or the executive or even the judiciary cannot in any manner infringe upon theRead MoreHigh Court At The Head Of Judiciary Of The State1359 Words   |  6 PagesHigh Court The High Court stands at the head of judiciary of the State. High courts are established under Part VI, Chapter V, Article 214 of the Indian Constitution. These courts have jurisdiction over a state, a union territory or a group of states and union territories. At present there are 24 High Courts in India. It enjoys civil as well as criminal, ordinary as well as extraordinary and general as well as special jurisdiction. Composition and Appointment of Judges Judges in a High Court areRead MoreSalem Witch Trials And The Crucible879 Words   |  4 Pageswere once the devil’s territories: and it may easily be supposed that the devil was exceedingly disturbed†(226). In this opening statement it’s very clear to see Mather’s Puritanism style in a couple of ways. First by calling New Englanders people of God and stating later in the text; â€Å"the devil thus irritated, immediately tried all sorts of methods to overturn this poor plantation†(226). Mather makes it clear that New Englander’s have endured many obstacles from the devil, but now a new evilRead MoreSection 482 of Crpc and Powers of Quashing of Fir4278 Words   |  18 PagesINHERENT JURISDICTION VESTED IN THE HIGH COURTS 3. INTERFERENCE UNDER ARTICLE 226 FOR FIR QUASHING 4. VIEW OF THE SUPREME COURT 5. AMENDMENT OF CODE OF CRIMINAL PROCEDURE ENABLING 6. RESTORATION OF COMPLAINTS 7. THE ACTIVIST PHASE 8. GUIDELINES FOR EXERCISING THE INHERENT POWERS 9. CONCLUSION 10. BIBLIOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION Sec 482 deals with Inherent powers of the Court. It is under the 37th Chapter of the Code titled â€Å"Miscellaneous†. The state high courts in India have been given supervisoryRead MoreLitigation Filed For Public Interest Litigation1460 Words   |  6 Pagesfiled for the protection of public interest. It is litigation introduced in a court of law for the benefit of the public not by the aggrieved person but by any public spirited citizen or by any group such as NGOs etc. It is not necessary, for the purpose of exercise of the court’s jurisdiction, that the person whose rights are violated or are likely to be violated should personally initiate judicial proceeding before the court of law. The normal rule is that if the personal right or interests are notRead MoreThe Case Of The Tronie Foundation1293 Words   |  6 PagesSurvivor Network, we have worked with survivors in 5 continents and in approximately 20 countries. Our Constitution guarantees these rights and the Supreme Court has ruled that wherever the Constitution is silent and the legislature has not made a law, those International Covenants to which India is a signatory may be enforced through the courts so far as they are consistent with the law of the land. These treaties and covenants may also be taken help of in statutory construction. The framers of the

Embryonic And Adult Stem Cell Research - 2165 Words

Another milestone in science has been reached: the discovery of stem cells in the 19th Century. Stem cells have the ability to divide for indefinite periods in culture and to give rise to specialized cells (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2009). According to the National Institutes of Health, embryonic stem cells derive from four to five day old embryos, also known as blastocyst, that have been fertilized in vitro and donated to research purposes with informed consent from the donors. Adult embryonic stem cells are found in differentiated cells in a tissue or organ. The main purpose of these cells is to repair the damaged tissue in which they are found. Since this discovery, there has been controversy over whether embryonic and adult stem cell research should be federally funded, and the ethics involved. Stem cell research has evolved ever since stem cells were first discovered. During the 1900s, stem cell research reached a new horizon. In 1978, stem cells were discove red in human cord blood. Because of this breakthrough, they were then able to use the cord blood to treat cancer or genetic blood diseases (EuroStemCell, 2012). In 1981, the first in vitro stem cell line was developed from mice. This slowly progressed to hamsters in 1988 and primates in 1995 (Murnaghan, 2016). These key events helped today’s scientists start many research studies. These research studies have brought forth numerous leads on different cures and treatments for diseases. If federalShow MoreRelatedEmbryonic And Adult Stem Cell Research Essay1093 Words   |  5 Pages but he is unaware that the type of sickle cell disease from which he is suffering can be cured using stem cells. Scientists have recorded two types of stem cells – embryonic and adult. Stem cells can be retrieved not only from embryos, but also umbilical cords, the placenta, amniotic fluid, and adult tissues and organs (â€Å"Stem Cells,† 2011, p.12). Stem cell research is only a small part of a much larger field of regenerative medicine that includes cell-based therapies, gene technology, and tissueRead MoreAdult Stem Cells Vs. Embryonic Stem Cell Research1108 Words   |  5 Pages4/4/16 Adult Stem Cells vs. Embryonic Stem Cells â€Å"The unspecialized cells are differentiated cells created are known as stem cells† (Miller Ph.D., Levine Ph.D., 2012). Embryonic and Adult stem cells are the only types of stem cells. Stem cell research shows a good deal of promise in the aiding of curing diseases. Both embryonic and adult stem cells show promise in curing diseases, but it is unclear which type of stem cell is more effective. The human embryo for embryonic stem cell research requiresRead More Embryonic and Adult Stem Cell Research Essay1359 Words   |  6 PagesEmbryonic and Adult Stem Cell Research With the advent of a wide variety of scientific advances in the medical field, especially those improvements in health-related fields, the quality of life for the earth’s inhabitants has improved greatly over the past century. Scientists continue to improve upon current knowledge and expand the field of medicine. Over the past few years, scientists have performed significant research pertaining to the study of stem cells. Many researchers see potentialRead More Embryonic vs. Adult Stem Cells in Research Essay1615 Words   |  7 PagesEmbryonic vs. Adult Stem Cells in Research    Why is the mainstream media significantly downplaying exciting scientific discoveries with adult stem cells? This essay hopes to adequately answer that question. Heres the scoop: As originally reported late last year in the medical journal Blood, Dr. Catherine M. Verfaillie and other researchers at the Stem Cell Institute, University of Minnesota, have discovered a way to coax an adult cell found in the bone marrow to exhibit many of the attributesRead MoreEmbryonic Of Stem Cell Research Essay1576 Words   |  7 PagesEmbryonic Stem Cell Research Francois Rabelais, the famous Renaissance humanist, once said, â€Å"Science without conscience is the death of the soul† (Rabelais, Francois). Since the late 1960’s, this has been the stance for opponents of embryonic stem cell research. This is saying, if we are willing to take a fertilized embryo and kill it before it has even had time to develop, where is our conscience, our heart? We consider this form of stem cell research to be immoral and unethical. ScientistsRead MoreIs Stem Cell Research Ethical?1252 Words   |  6 Pages Is Stem Cell Research Ethical? The question that has been asked so many times, is stem cell research ethical? To argue ethics over this topic, one must first know what a stem cell is.Stem Cells are â€Å"cells with the ability to divide for indefinite periods in culture and to give rise to specialized cells† (Stem Cell Basics: Introduction). The National Institutes of Health say that stem cells are distinguished for two different reasons. The first is â€Å"they are unspecialized cells capable of renewingRead MoreBiomedical Engineering: Stem Cells Essay1584 Words   |  7 Pagesadvances and research that stem from biomedical engineers can solve problems that would have never have been able to be solved before. Engineers have been working on new technology that will utilize stem cells in order to save lives and treat diseases. The stem cells that are used for treatment are called embryonic stem cells. Embryonic stem cells are formed from five-day old human embryos that the embryos are essentially hum an beings (In Stem-cell Research† Para. 3). The usage of such stem cells has causedRead MoreEssay on Stem Cells: The Cure for Uncontrollable Diseases of the Past1246 Words   |  5 PagesGehrig’s disease, Sickle Cell Anemia, Alzheimer’s. This world is plague by countless diseases and there existed a time where, after many failed research attempts, scientists began to believe that people would always suffer from these diseases. However, with the introduction of stem cell research those past notions were dismissed. Upon their introduction, stem cell’s provided a new hope to the world and it proved itself to be an invaluable asset. Through stem cell research, a multitude of cures haveRead More Stem Cell Research Essay example988 Words   |  4 PagesStem Cell Research Stem cells are a large focus of study in todays biomedical world. 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Decision-Making and Problem Solving The Largest Carmaker

Question: Describe about the Decision-Making and Problem Solving for The Largest Carmaker. Answer: Introduction: Organization overview: Volkswagen is the largest carmaker in Europe and is the leading manufacturer of automobile all over the world. The company has twelve brands and respective brands operate as an independent entity in the market and have its own character. The product spectrum ranges from the small care having low fuel consumption to luxury vehicles and motor vehicles. The product ranges from the buses, pickups to heavy vehicles in the sector of commercial vehicles. There are fields in which the group is active and produces manufactures with turbo machineries, chemical reactors, compressors, large bore diesel engines for the marines. The other products include gear units for turbines of wind, vehicles transmissions and the system of testing for the mobility sectors. The group offers a wide range of financial services and this includes insurance and banking activities, fleet management, customer and dealer financing and leasing. The market condition in the year 2015 was difficult which led to the fall i n the number of the vehicles delivered by the group to the consumers (Volkswagen.com 2016). Purpose of the report: The report has been prepared to discuss the emission scandal of Volkswagen and to come up with the approaches that would help in overcoming the issue faced. It also discusses about the methods that can improve the existing system. Description of the problem: The owners of Volkswagen lost $ 1500 in value on the cars. The analysis of the data of the car pricing shows that the value of cars has fallen. The median loss of value for the TDI diesel vehicle of Volkswagen was $ 1483 and the price of such vehicles has declined by 6.4%. The company posted a net loss of 1.58 billion for the year 2015 as compared with the net profit of 10.85 billion for the previous year. The operating loss of the company for the year ended 2015 stood at 4.1 billion. Because of the emission issue, the revenue of the group would fall by 5% and the share of the company was down at 0.5%. Therefore, the main issue was concerning the corporate governance approach of the company, which was faulty, and it came with a huge societal impact. The consequences of the scandal by the company influenced the shareholders who lost confidence in the company and the company faced claim of the damages over the emission scandal. The company faced investigations and lawsuits all over the world. The company faced lawsuits and the institutional investors filed case. Value lost by the different cars Source: (created by author) Description of the approach used: The scandal management by Volkswagen make use of the approach, which was as quickly as possible, and open as possible. The company made use of the leadership approach as the rebuilding of the trust and confidence in the brand needs to be started from the inside of the organization. The organization has responded to the scandal by changing its structure and implementing it so that the consumers have confidence that the firms would not repeat it again. The standards of the corporate governance is to be made high so that the company would find it difficulty in committing the fraud in the future. Reactive approach was used to rebrand the image and reputation of the company, which was intended to potentially save the company and speed up the efficiency program. There is a need to create such climate that the problems would be openly communicated, there is a need to make changes in the procedures of election of the directors, and the wide inclusion of the directors would prove beneficial to the company. Rebranding approach would lead to better practice of corporate social responsibility (Balbi 2015). Another approach used was in relation to the stakeholders of the company. The trust of the customers would be retained by posting the bond that would assure them. This approach is to assure the stakeholders that the loss would not be shifted to them, as they would pay a bond out to the European Commissions automotive industry. The company for its research and development of the green vehicles, structure of information technology and decarbonization of the conventional engines would use the money generated. The bond is set at the high amount to ensure that Volkswagen regrets the cheating emissions. The company relied on the reactive approach of developing the tactics and strategies that was intended to reduce the legal liability and minimize costs. The approach used was not in the interest of the goodwill of the company, which called restring the trust of the government regulators and customers. The company later conducted the thorough investigations, which helped in identifying the process and decision maker. This is likely to persuade the justice departments and regulator to become less aggressive (Hakim 2016). The company initially followed the standard playbook of crisis by pledging to make amendments and apologizing quickly. Considering the nature of issue, the reaction based on the textbook crisis may not have been adequate. Analysis and discussion: Appraisal of Approach Fresh approach to the corporate governance: The leadership approach used by the company would help in restructuring the structure of corporate governance. A new Chief Executive Officer has been suggested by the chairman of the General and group work council of Volkswagen. The new CEO would have deep technical knowledge. This would help in changing the corporate culture. The appointment of the new CEO would bring new lease of life into the organization by changing the business strategy, business environment and competitive position (Hwang and Yoon 2012). Some of the other things related to the approach is collaborating with other organizations, which would help in focusing on the work related to sustainability, and this would embed the practice of corporate social responsibility in every sector of the company. The approach to corporate governance is in regard with the particular incentives, which is extremely short sighted. The structure of the company should be such that it leads to the decision making at the faster pace and incorporates efficient actions. The changes structure if the company should be able to develop the potential of the company. The company should also install the software and the diesel engine that contained the software to cheat the emission tests. This diesel engine should install the software and the flow device of transformer (Hwang and Yoon 2012). The process of repairing the vehicles by the Volkswagen would began by the next year and this would be done by sending the letter to the motorists, which would advise the customers about the schedule of repairing the vehicle. The vehicles having engines of 2 liter or 1.2 liter would be fixed with the updating of the software that would be installed in half hour. The structural and the realignment of the staffs at Volksw agen is the continuous process after the scandal. There is no room for dissonance in the current framework. The company needs to adapt to the models that would help in predicting the future emissions (Griggs-Hall 2015). The company needs to adapt to the technology that would cut the emissions of the nitrogen dioxide tailpipe. The lean nitrogen dioxide is the technology that should be adapted to the diesel cars. The technology grabs the nitrogen oxide by using the earth oxides such as cerium oxide and barium oxide and forming nitrate such as barium nitrate. This technology of controlling the emissions has to be regenerated by running rich in an environment that is oxygen starved (Davies, 2015). Improvements in the approach used: The senior management of the company has been met with the sweeping change in the attempt to overhaul the culture following the scandal and cut the cost. The structure of the company should be transformed as the scandal concerning the emission was due to the corporate mindset that leads to the breaking of rules and there was the whole chain of errors. The change in the management would speed up the process of decision-making and help in increasing the efficiency and would reduce the complexities. The company has admitted the installation of the defeat devices in the vehicles, which it sold worldwide. The models of the computers are used to predict the future emission in the vehicles. The environment protection agency publishes the model and for every model, the distribution rates of the emission are different. The model also takes into account the few high emission vehicles. The company needs to make changes in the procedures of testing of EPA and so that the necessary information and data is obtained for the proper sizing and the design of the model. The model should be valid for the various types of the operating condition and in the variety of the operating conditions (Hotten, 2016). The company is also looking forward to strengthen the sustainability management and for this purpose and has appointed the sustainability council of top class that would provide the guidance to the company on various matters such as environmental protection, social responsibility sustainability mobility and digitization (Thompson and Kottasova 2015). The technical solutions is positively evaluated and the company is ensuring that the models used are meeting the legal requirements in the future and the cost of implementing the solutions to the customers would be managed in the financial, technical and manufacturing terms. The software installed in the vehicles should be updated. The company would increase the precision of the measurement by making use of flow transformer that would be used in combination with the redesigned software that would optimize the quantity injected. The implementing solutions are charge free and it would provide the customers with the replacement of vehicle that is appropriate (Mintzberg 2015). The company faces the technical challenge for retorting the vehicles such that there is the same emission strategy for the emissions and the limits of emission is able to meet within the same. The company is also seeking the California Air resources board and environmental protection agency for the solutions. The company is also shaping the change in the digital platform in association with the supply industry partners. Partnership and the digitalization is thought of being the cornerstone of the Group (Pettigrew 2014). The company would improve the approach by using the technology of selective catalytic reduction. The technology is highly efficient in removing the nitrogen oxide and there is not as high a fuel penalty. The trapping of nitrogen oxide is a lower cost approach, which is used for the small vehicles. The quantity and the timing of spraying urea and the engine have to be calibrated. Other approach available: Implementing the new structure of the Group: The structure of the group would be changed by institutionalizing the comprehensive new alignment and changing the strategic goals of the company and its way of thinking. In the future, the company will be managed in a decentralized fashion and there will be more independence in relation to its regions and brand. The board of management would be fully focused on the core task of the company and it would take into account the global issues of the future and strategies, control and synergies. The technical changes affecting the model of business of the company would come with the significant input and this would streamline the process of decision-making. The cost efficiency of the company would be improved and it would become lean. These structural changes would help in reducing the managerial complexities and would help in leading the company for the long term (Krall and Peng 2015). Developing the new strategic destination: The company has initiated a new strategic target, as this would help in addressing the issues of the future. The realignment of the company is done using strategic and technological basis. The electrification and digitalization is being prepared by the company to expand the sakes of the business outside the core business it conducts. The company is intended to take the advantage of its huge potential, which would lead to success in the long term. The future emission test of Volkswagen would be evaluated independently and has developed the technical solutions for the European customers. The company is extensively working on improving the technical solutions (Minda 2015). Significant improvement in efficiency: The strategies of the company are designed that they are able to provide the operational and financial excellence across all the divisions and functions. The company is seeking for the efficient utilization of resources and it would generate the potential for improvement in the annual earning of the company. Realigning the competent business and developing the new competencies: The company would address the topic concerning the artificial intelligence, the autonomous driving as it will provide with the resources, and this would help in licensing the self-driving system that is competitive. The company is to develop the battery technology and would be involved in the streamlining of the potential revenue for the company (Thompson and Kottasova 2015). Conclusion and recommendation: Justification of the best approach: The company needs to dedicate all its resources and efforts in reestablishing the credibility of the company and the company can prefer to rebrand, however, the option is unlikely on fairer basis. The other thing that is easy to accomplish is to join the independent agencies for the purpose of verification and the option is feasible one. The company can post a bond and sell one of its brands. The best recommendation for the company would be to join the independent verification agencies and sell one of its brands as one of its changed structure in relation to the corporate governance. This is so because the sakes of the company would gradually increase as the consumers would slowly regain the trust in the brand. The Volkswagen should regret about deceiving the customers and it needs to show it to the customers. The group should dedicate itself to the better practice of the corporate responsibility. This would perhaps help the company in regaining the global stats in the industry of automobiles. The Volkswagen group is also recommended to employ ethical leader who would be a strong moral manager and a strong moral person. Implementation plan for best approach: The company should change the structure of the organization and it should follow the approach of checking if the actions on their part is morally permissible and it should implement the executive ethical leadership reputation matrix. This would act as an implementation plan in employing ethical leader. Therefore, restructuring the corporate governance of Volkswagen group. Summary of key learning: The scandal of the company depicts how the rhetoric of the corporate social responsibility is deviated from practice and shows how easy solutions can be challenged by the corporate misconduct. The Volkswagen group was involved in the scandal and the report explains the scandal in context of emissions tests. The actions of the group regarding the installation of the software, which actually lead to emission greater than the standard emission rates, were not morally permissible. The cheating scandal of Volkswagen is one of the significant stories in the business and the operation of the financial market was fundamentally changed due to the scandal. Thus, the company has the faulty approach to the corporate governance and the range of the corporate governance of Volkswagen ranges from the aspiration to average. The corporate governance of the company requires a new approach and it is a formality, which has to be satisfied, and it is not hugely valuable by the company. The scandal of the company could not be prevented despite the efforts of the company in mitigating the risk and the corporate commitment to sustainability. The scandal of Volkswagen highlights that the programmes of corporate governance would not be effective if the corporate managers do not foster the assumptions about the ethical conduct. The company needs to improve the ideas of corporate governance and the ethos of the company can be build using the better approach to the corporate social responsibility along with the protection of the whistleblowers and the better regulation. Reference: Balbi, A., 2015. Update: Volkswagen scandal: one of the world's largest automakers has admitted to unethical decision making and is working on clarifying the" inconsistencies.".Strategic Finance,97(6), pp.9-10. Blackwelder, B., Coleman, K., Colunga-Santoyo, S., Harrison, J.S. and Wozniak, D., 2016. The Volkswagen Scandal. Davies, A., 2015. The Real Winner in the VW Diesel Scandal? Hybrid Cars.Wired, 24Sept. Elson, C.M., Ferrere, C.K. and Goossen, N.J., 2015. The bug at Volkswagen: Lessons in co?determination, ownership, and board structure.Journal of Applied Corporate Finance,27(4), pp.36-43. Griggs-Hall, R., 2015. What You Need to Know About the Volkswagen Scandal.Life,7. Hakim, D. (2016).VWs Crisis Strategy: Forward, Reverse, U-Turn. [online] Nytimes.com. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/28/business/international/vws-crisis-strategy-forward-reverse-u-turn.html [Accessed 21 Dec. 2016]. Hotten, R., 2016. Volkswagen: the scandal explained. BBC News. Hwang, C.L. and Yoon, K., 2012.Multiple attribute decision making: methods and applications a state-of-the-art survey(Vol. 186). Springer Science Business Media. Krall, J.R. and Peng, R.D., 2015. The Volkswagen scandal: Deception, driving and deaths.Significance,12(6), pp.12-15. Minda, J.P., 2015.The Psychology of Thinking: Reasoning, Decision-Making and Problem-Solving. SAGE. Mintzberg, H., 2015. VW: The syndrome behind the scandal. Pettigrew, A.M., 2014.The politics of organizational decision-making. Routledge. Posada, F., 2015. Volkswagen emissions scandal undermines confidence in analytical chemistry. Proctor, T., 2014.Creative problem solving for managers: developing skills for decision making and innovation. Routledge. Schiermeier, Q., 2015. The science behind the Volkswagen emissions scandal.Nature News,25. Spence, P. (2015).VW emissions scandal: what's it all about?. [online] Telegraph.co.uk. Available at: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/industry/11884738/VW-emissions-scandal-whats-it-all-about.html [Accessed 23 Oct. 2016]. Taylor, D.W., 2013. Decision Making and Problem Solving1.Handbook of organizations,20, pp.48-86. Taylor, D.W., 2013. Decision Making and Problem Solving1.Handbook of organizations,20, pp.48-86. Thompson, M. and Kottasova, I., 2015. Volkswagen Scandal Widens.CNNMoney, 22Sept. Volkswagen.com.my. (2016).Volkswagen Malaysia - New Models, Passenger Cars, Sedans, SUVs. [online] Available at: https://www.volkswagen.com.my/en.html [Accessed 23 Oct. 2016]. Wong, C., 2012. Decision-making and problem-solving.Evaluation for Sustainability and Participation in Planning, p.14.

Biography - Bill Gates essays

Biography - Bill Gates essays We are living in the information age. Everything nowadays revolves around computers and electronics. A person in California can play another competitor in Iran a game of chess without leaving their home by the use of computers. Computers have become a lot smaller and much more famous around the world. One individual has played a big role in the computer industry. He is an American business executive, chairman and chief executive officer of the Microsoft Corporation, and a multibillionaire: Bill Gates. Gates, William Henry, III (1955- ) was born in Seattle, Washington. Gates grew up in a very competitive family. His father, William H. Gates II, was an attorney. His mother, Mary, was a University of Washington regent and director of First Interstate Bank. His parents placed him in Lakeside, an academic and rigorous private school in Seattle. He met Paul Allen in high school. Gates was fascinated with computers since the age of 12 and has been programming projects throughout high school career. While attending Harvard in 1975, Gates and Allen made a version of the BASIC, a computer programming language compiler for the MITS Altair microprocessor, the first personal computer. Working on BASIC for the Altair, Gates dropped out of Harvard, in 1977, to pursue his full-time vision of, "a computer on every desk and in every home." In the early 1980's, Gates help lead Microsoft from a developer of programming languages to a diverse computer software company that produced computer operating systems, applications software and programming tools. Gates has made MS-DOS, in 1981, a computer operating system for the new IBM Personal Computer. He has also driven Microsoft toward the introduction of application software such as the Microsoft Word (word processing software). Gates has challenged many companies with there related products. He has challenged Digital Research, the maker of ...

Pros and Cons of Various High School Diploma Tracks

Pros and Cons of Various High School Diploma Tracks Diploma types vary from school to school, although in most states, decisions about diploma requirements are made by state education officials. Students should speak with parents and counselors and think carefully before deciding which type of diploma is best for them. Ideally, students should decide on a curriculum before starting their freshman year, although it is sometimes possible to switch. In most cases, students are not â€Å"locked in† to a certain diploma track once they start on one. Students may start out on a track that becomes too demanding and switch to a new track at some point. But be warned! Switching tracks can be dangerous. Students who switch tracks often run the risk of overlooking a class requirement until late in their curriculum. This can lead to (yikes) summer school or (worse) late graduation. The type of diploma a student chooses will affect his or her future choices. For instance, students who choose to complete a vocational or technical prep diploma will be somewhat limited in their options after high school. In most cases, this type of degree prepares students for entering the workplace or enrolling in a technical college. Many colleges require the completion of a college prep diploma as an admission requirement. If you have your heart set on a big university from your home state, be sure to check the minimum admission requirement and plan your diploma track accordingly. More selective colleges like to see that students have completed a more rigorous curriculum than the one required in a general college prep diploma, and those colleges may require an honors diploma (or seal), an advanced college prep diploma, or an International Baccalaureate diploma. Similar types of diplomas may have different names from state to state. For instance, some high schools offer a general diploma. Other school systems may call the same diploma type an academic diploma, a standard diploma, or a local diploma. This type of diploma gives students greater flexibility in choosing courses, but it might limit the student’s choices for post-secondary options. Unless the student chooses courses very carefully, the general diploma probably won’t meet the minimum requirements of many selective colleges. But there is an exception to every rule! Not all colleges use diplomas as a deciding factor when they consider students for acceptance. Many private colleges will accept general diplomas and even technical diplomas. Private colleges can set their own standards, since they do not have to follow state mandates. Common Diploma Types Technical/Vocational Students must complete a combination of academic courses and vocational or technical courses. General Student must complete a certain number of credits and maintain a minimum GPA. College Prep Students must complete a state-mandated curriculum and maintain a certain GPA. Honors College Prep Students must complete a state-mandated curriculum that is complemented by additional rigorous coursework. Students must achieve a high academic level and maintain a certain GPA. International Baccalaureate Students must complete a specific two-year international curriculum to meet standards set by The International Baccalaureate Organization. This challenging curriculum is normally completed in the final two years of high school by qualified students who have completed a highly academic pre-baccalaureate curriculum.

Service delivery should not be a priority focus for Non-Governmental Essay

Service delivery should not be a priority focus for Non-Governmental Organisations' (NGOs) work. Discuss, with reference to relevant literature and examples, a - Essay Example On the other hand, the delivery of services as well as every other activity that would be possibly undertaken by the NGO’s should be based on a series of rules and ethics that could ensure the quality and the relevance of these activities around the world. It is for this reason that Lewis (2001, 1) supported that ‘for some NGOs the delivery of services will doubtless require a set of practices and techniques which could usefully draw upon public and private sector approaches; For NGOs involved in campaigning and networking, perhaps less of this material will be of value, and new approaches are needed’. In other words, in accordance with the above researcher, not all activities of NGOs should be regulated strictly by governmental rules and principles but mainly the delivery of services. However, it is not made clear whether the above rules should refer to particular issues related with the delivery of services or would contain rather general guidelines and suggestions. At a next level, in order to understand the role of service delivery in the operation of NGOs, we should primarily present a definition of these organisations as it has been formulated during their operation throughout the world. In accordance with a definition given by Mawlawi (1993, 391) ‘broadly defined, NGOs are private, voluntary, non-profit organizations whose members combine their skills, means and energies in the service of shared ideals and objectives’. Moreover, Mawlawi, explains the main characteristics of NGOs based on the definition presented above. In this context it is stated that ‘NGOs vary in scope, resource base and influence as well as in functional and ideological orientation; they may be local, national or international, and include service groups, prominent foundations and professional or other membership organizations; NGOs are generally dependent on private resources, but in several countries they receive government support as well’ (Mawlawi, 1993,

Wiki, Blog, and Podcast analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Wiki, Blog, and Podcast analysis - Essay Example Such a transition may require one or more strategies from the following as defined by Ballard (2008): This presentation is pertaining to the feasibility analysis of Wiki, Blogs and Podcasts for Smith Systems Consulting for the purpose of two way interactions with the customers. The paper is presented in the form of feasibility study and proposal for Smith Systems Consulting. The organization is in the business of web site development for the customers staring from conceptualization to productionization. Smith Systems Consulting uses cutting edge programming, database & networking tools, methods and techniques to develop the websites for their customers. In order to keep in touch with the customers, Smith Systems Consulting wants to carry out research on Wiki, Blogs and Podcasts to verify their feasibility for this purpose. The author hereby presents their feasibility analysis in the next section. Austin and Coates et al. (2009) define the Wiki as a fully editable website on which users can read and add content to contribute to a framework of collaborative knowledge. One of the most prominent examples of Wiki is the Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia that comprises of more than 2 million articles available in 265 languages. The content on Wiki's can be updated by any user through a web interface that allows almost instantaneous updating of the content. The system is subject to reviews like peer reviews, expert reviews, abuse control, etc. Wikis can be public (editable by anyone) or private (editable by a closed user group). i. Type of Information that Wiki can effectively convey Wiki is used as shared knowledge database in which content is added and managed related to a particular subject matter, project, reporting matter, conference, discussion groups, on-line terms & glossaries, dictionaries, collaborative software development, etc. Hence Wiki can be used for any collaborative environment for knowledge sharing. The content in Wiki can be entered and

Is Cyber Warfare the Future of War?

Is Cyber Warfare the Future of War? Introduction Undoubtedly, the twentieth century could be counted as the bloodiest in human history; man has been at war for much longer than he has been at peace. The death tolls are incalculable although historians put estimates at somewhere between 170 million to 210 million. No true figures are available but what is undisputed is the proliferation and effect of war on all aspects of society. Its impact on the soldier and the civilian as well as the economy and society or culture has given birth to the concept of ‘total war’  (Marwil, 2000). The last time total war was experienced was the Second World War which invariably led to the Cold War and its all-encompassing nature on every aspect of society  (Stavrianakis & Selby, 2012). Particularly with technology, the 20th century has seen the advancement of technology to epistemic levels where it has produced the concept of ‘modern war’ – atomic weapons, satellite guided missiles, chemical and biological weapons and electronic drones; none of which have eclipsed the older forms of warfare  (Barkawi, 2011). A new form of warfare has evolved and it is part of the 4th Industrial Revolution; it is cyber warfare. To understand its significance, one only has to look at former President Barack Obama declaring the digital infrastructure of the US as strategic national asset to be protected with the entire resources available to the United States. Obama prompted the formation of a special unit in the Pentagon called Cybercom whose sole purpose is to prepare the US for the inevitable cyber war that America will be embroiled in. The UK has also set up the National Cyber Security Programme and NATO has released the Tallinn Manual on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Warfare; a three-year study by international scholars setting out ninety-rules to govern conflicts among nations. Cyber warfare is definitely gearing up as a new arena for conflict. This dissertation looks at the subject of cyber warfare and examines how widespread a concern this is to nations and if indeed it is just a concern of the super powers. Just like atomic weapons has become a military weapon of magnitude, the world has still not experienced a nuclear war. Instead nuclear energy is being used to advance economies and aid production and meet energy needs. Is cyber space similar to the threat of nuclear weapons? Does it actually do more good that the proposed harm that is being touted? This dissertation will carry out a secondary data analysis to understand the current literature on the subject and determine if indeed cyber warfare is the new arena of conflict. Narrative The organising principle of every theme in this dissertation is layered; each begins with a general historical and contextual appraisal invariably moving to specifics and constantly looking at the problem-solution dilemma. To substantiate or clarify explanations, arguments, themes, findings etc., footnotes will be included and/or non-integral citations will be used to focus attention more on the research being discussed and less on the researchers or authors. All related studies to this dissertation will be research/information prominent. With a few exceptions, English is used entirely in this dissertation and therefore tense usage is important in the organisational narrative. Where reference is made to a single study, the past simple tense will be used. Where reference is made to more than one study or an area of research, the present perfect tense will be used. Where reference is made to generally accepted knowledge, particularly with respect to cyber warfare or generally accepted knowledge in international relations, information technology or geopolitics, the present tense will be used. Finally, the choice of reporting verbs in this dissertation will inadvertently express a certain attitude be it critical distance, doubt, certainty, confusion etc. As much as possible, I have tried to maintain the same reporting verbs used in citing research and evoking emotion in my reflexive thoughts. Sometimes this has not been possible and the same reporting verb will express different attitudes depending on the context. Where this has occurred, I have elaborated any misconception or misunderstanding in the corresponding footnotes. Themes and concepts The chronological order of the table of contents gives a straightforward description of the chapter and sub-chapter headings in this dissertation. Thematically, the dissertation is divided into 4 chapters. Chapters 1-3 deal with the research justification as well as academic and methodological underpinnings. These chapters set the terms of reference for the dissertation and elaborate its research direction and deal with the subject matter, cyber warfare. Chapter 4 deals with the results, discussion of the results and conclusion. Theoretical and conceptual framework War, Conflict and Anarchy It is imperative to understand international relations and the theories and concepts underpinning them before looking at cyber warfare as a new arena for war. The Melian Dialogue in the great 5th century BC classic of Thucydides’ â€Å"History of the Peloponnesian War† best describes the context in which one looks at the international system. At a point in the Peloponnesian Wars, the Athenians wanted to take over the neutral island of Melos to obtain control over the Aegean Sea. An Athenian fleet was dispatched to Melos to try and negotiate a surrender and the ensued dialogue, as told by Thucydides, captures the essence and birth of our international system today. The Athenians declared to the Melians that â€Å"since you know as well as we do that right, as the world goes, is only in question between equals in power, while the strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must.† (Thucydides) The international system today is premised on the fact that nation states can and do exert their power over weaker states although some do work through a collaborative system to ensure a common purpose. The study of international relations begins with the very notion that there is no central authority which acts as the ultimate arbiter in world affairs. Nations simply do what they can through mutually beneficial alliances and discard them when their interests are no longer served. If we look at world history before the 20th century, international relations could be said to be in a state of anarchy as there was no central figure. From 1078, China was the world’s major producer of steel, the world’s leader in technical innovations, the world’s leading trading nation, possessed the largest commercial ships and these are just to mention a few. Few academics would now dispute that China was the world’s hyperpower for 800 years before the rise of British imperialism in the 19th century. Despite China being a hyperpower for 800 years, there is no record of any central authority governing the behaviour of nation-states. They simply did what they could to nations who couldn’t fight back. Ironically China was insular and did not engage in any international conflicts. Every study of international relations or politics beyond that makes assumptions about the state of anarchy and offers a counter explanation of an international system with inter-state relations and a hierarchical intrastate system. A system that we have now with bodies like the United Nations, the World Trade Organization regulating economic relations and the International Criminal Court prosecuting crimes against humanity.   International relations deals with how nation states decide to exist without a central authority or with no structure or how they choose to create one. Waltz (1979) describes the juxtaposition of the international system and the domestic system by explaining that   domestic systems are centralized and hierarchic†, international systems are decentralized and anarchic†Waltz 1979, p. 88 All approaches to international relations and studying the behaviour of nation-states begins with an assessment of the anarchic structure in the international system. Anarchy is the starting point of viewing international relations but that view depends on the perspective a country chooses to take. Let’s begin with the oldest view recorded since the Melian dialogue between the Athenians and the Melians. The ‘political realist’ perspective is known as a theory one subscribes to in international relations. A political realist is under no illusions that countries behave with the single purpose of self-interest and therefore actions and reactions are done to defend that interest. Nation states are geared towards survival, according to the realist and this can often mean exerting strength over a weaker enemy or acceding to a collaboration with a stronger foe. All is done for the purpose of ensuring the continuation of the state by any means necessary. Therefore, the only way to predict behaviour is to predict survival. Realists do not see a set of behavioural guidelines but a survival of the fittest in the ‘international jungle of world politics’. Or as one might put it succinctly, ‘might is right’. To the realist, the international order is that of ensuring that power relations are conducted in such a manner that outcomes are mutually exclusive. One party will always gain over the other so the purpose for the nation-state in any negotiations is to be the winner. Where this cannot be achieved then the realist will view this as a precarious position to be in. Realists’ view of the anarchical order can describe the behaviour of nation-states in various ways from the classical realist to the neorealist and several forms in between. Whichever view is subscribed to, anarchy forms the basis of that world view and the expected behaviour of nation-states  (Heginbotham, 2015). Liberalist recognise the importance of anarchy in the international system in just the same way as the realists. Both liberal and realist accept the absence of a supreme authority directing the affair of nation-states. Where liberals and the liberal view differ on the subject is what can be done within the anarchic system. Liberals believe that nation-states and state actors can actually come together to build rules, guideline, set up institutions and appoint various monitoring bodies to govern or at least modify the behaviour of nation-states so that they can work together for a common person  (Barkawi, 2011). Outcomes do not have to be mutually exclusive but can be mutually beneficial in an anarchic system, according to the liberal view of international relations. Through joint cooperation, liberals believe that the behaviour of nation-states can be changed to achieve a level of power where states feel secure about their relationships with other states and do not seek to consolidate power at the expense of others. This classical liberal view can be seen in the world today as neoliberalism. Liberals still see anarchy in the international system but see it as something that can be overcome through a concerted effort. Whatever view one prescribes, the prevailing wisdom is that nation states will shift between theories and concepts to advance their own agenda and not confine themselves to an enduring guiding principle. The concept of cyber warfare, I would argue, follows suit. Defining the cyber world Almost twenty-five years ago, ‘cyberspace’ as we know it did not exist beyond the primitive computers placed in research laboratories and academic institutions. In fact, cyberspace was merely a theoretical concept that was considered unachievable. Today that has drastically changed. Our world would be unfathomable without cyberspace. To put its vastness into perspectives, approximately 4 billion people are online with roughly 50 billion devices ranging from super computers to desktops to laptops to smartphones to tablets. On a yearly basis, 90 trillion emails are sent and two trillion transactions are conducted in cyberspace (Turns, 2012). Cyberspace permeates are lives so much that we use it for everything from international trade, to logistics, communications, record keeping, financial transactions to sending flowers! All these positive contributions are the benevolent side of cyberspace. The malevolent aspect of cyberspace is ignored by the public unless a scare or scandal brings it to the surface. Figures estimate that on a daily basis, around 55,000 pieces of malware are found, 200,000 computers are ‘hijacked’[1]as well as the countless number of frauds that go unreported. How exactly does one define cyberspace? That question is not easy to answer as there are as many answers as there are experts in the field. A notable expert worth considering is Daniel Kuehl who collected a series of definitions from various sources and analysed his findings  (Curran, et al., 2008). He concluded that cyberspace consisted of a few dimensions namely; An operational space – it is an operational space where proponents of the domain ply their trade and perfect their skills. An electronic domain – it is an electronic network comprising of computers and a vast network of electromagnetic activityInformation domain – it is a network of information that is not limited to a particular location, time and space Kuehl analysed all these aspects and offered his own definition which will be used in this dissertation: â€Å"A global domain within the information environment whose distinctive and unique character is framed by the use of electronics and the electromagnetic spectrum to create, store, modify, exchange and exploit information via interdependent and interconnected networks using information-communication technologies.†Kuehl, 2009 Cyber terrorism is a portmanteau of the words cyberspace and terrorism and was first recognised and used in 1996 but became popular after a 1998 report from the Center for Strategic and International Studies titled Cybercrime, Cyberterrorism, Cyberwarfare: Averting an Electronic Waterloo. The report discussed the possibilities of an electronic attack, likely outcomes and expected methods  (Carr, 2011). Three terms are often confused when discussing Cyber terrorism so it is crucial that they are defined here. Cyber terrorism: â€Å"It is premeditated, politically motivated attacks by sub national groups or clandestine agents, or individuals against information and computer systems, computer programs, and data that result in violence against non-combatant targets (Colarik & Janczewski, 2012).† Information warfare: â€Å"It is a planned attack by nations or their agents against information and computer systems, computer programs, and data that result in enemy losses (Colarik & Janczewski, 2012).† Cyber crime: â€Å"Cyber crime is a crime committed through the use of information technology (Colarik & Janczewski, 2008).† This is more of the documented cyber related terms because it has received adequate coverage due to its proliferation in domestic law enforcement. In the U.S., the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act defines Internet criminal acts (Jensen, 2009). Furthermore, the â€Å"European Union members of the NATO alliance have domestic laws implementing the 1995 E.U. Data Privacy Directive† (Knapp & Boulton, 2006). For argument’s sake, cybercrime includes offences such as; the impairment of data, misuse of devices, interception of data offenses. traditional criminal offenses facilitated through the use of the internet, e.g. fraud, copyright infringement, child pornography Cybercrime has received a lot of international attention and was formally discussed at the Council of Europes 2001 Convention on Cybercrime  (Robinson, et al., 2015). This convention is still the only international understanding in place that exclusively focusses on cybercrimes. Terrorism: â€Å"The unlawful use or threatened use of force or violence by a person or an organized group against people or property with the intention of intimidating or coercing societies or governments, often for ideological or political reasons (Dragan, et al., 2012).† Research Approach Research Questions This research will attempt to explore and answer three questions regarding the broad themes that preliminary research has shown and in line with the gaps in current academic research; What exactly is cyber space?Is an information war a ‘war’ in the conventional sense?Is Russia engaging in a cyber war with the West? The dissertation considered various approaches to address the questions above as well as examine different options such as sources of data, type of research framework, timescale and methodology. In trying to answer any of the research questions, it was clear that any primary data used to carry out the research and with the available time limit would not be possible or indeed produce valuable information. This dissertation needed to design an analytical framework to counter this problem. Thus, I attempt to make a justification for carrying out secondary analysis of qualitative data and the benefits and limitations of the approach Secondary Data Collection In setting about the data collection, it was imperative I included boundaries for the study, the protocol for recording the data as well as the methodology for analysing it which are all set out below. The secondary data included qualitative documents and qualitative audio and visual materials. The list of secondary evidences kept evolving and the research continued. However, below is the final list of secondary evidences used. Data from various government departmentsNews articles from newspapersData and analysis from periodicals, books, journals etc.Data from non-governmental agencies and public bodiesData from online sources Secondary Analysis of Qualitative Data Secondary data analysis is essentially re-analysis of data collected by another researcher (Elliot, 2015). Andrews et al gave a definition of secondary data analysis as the collection and use of previously collected data for another purpose  (Andrews, et al., 2012). In addition, they also explained that the use of secondary data analysis first appeared when one of the founders of Grounded Theory (Glaser) discussed the possibility of re-analysing data that had already been collected for other purposes (Andrews, et al., 2012). Notwithstanding, secondary analysis is still not very popular and there have been very limited reviews of its use (Hinds, et al., 1997). At this point, it is pertinent that a distinction be made between secondary analysis, documentary analysis, systemic reviews and meta-analysis. Secondary data analysis is the examination of primary data[2] from previous research studies. Such data would include examples such as semi-structured interviews, research diaries, responses to open-ended questions in questionnaires, transcripts of interviews/conversations etc. On the other hand, documentary analysis would involve the analysis of data such as auto-biographies, personal diaries, photographs etc. Heaton does point out that there could be some considerable overlap between secondary analysis and documentary analysis (Heaton, 2008). Meta-analysis and Systematic Reviews both involve both involve going over published findings of previous research studies unlike secondary data analysis that looks at the primary data and not just the published findings. Review & Discussion Introduction Cyber warfare has different definitions depending on which theorist is applying it and which country is examining and applying the concept; for example, the U.S. military view cyber warfare in very different terms from the Russians. To begin with the word â€Å"cyber† is a completely new phenomenon that arose after the dot com boom and the start of the 4th Revolution. Not surprisingly, it has not filtered into the established rules of war or armed conflict adhered to by other nation states  (Chen, 2010). For starters, the word â€Å"cyber† is not found in the 1949 Geneva Conventions and any of the additional Protocols (it has not been inserted there). The word, in common usage, relates to a whole host of things ranging from computers and their networks to the information in these computers to even the process of uploading and retrieving this information. By extension, the word cyber warfare will include acts committed in furtherance of any act against and adversary using everything that is considered part of the ‘cyber’ domain. In looking at acts, cyber warfare would include offensive acts, defensive acts or acts of deterrence. By this explanation, it will include disseminating offensive information through computers or computer networks  (Andress & Winterfeld, 2011). Cyber warfare is one that has no clear boundaries or actors which makes a lot of the current legislation unhelpful. Acts of war or states of war are usually assigned to recognised states and combatants. But in this case, cyber warfare can be conducted by states, agents of states, non-state actors, international groups or any collection of people with a single vested interest or even one individual  (Cornish, et al., 2010).   Cyber Warfare and the legal question This dissertation started off with trying to determine if cyber warfare is the new arena of conflict. Even though I have attempted to define ‘cyber’ and ‘cyber warfare’, there are still large parts of this area of study that need to be examined. A lot of the current research already makes the assumption that cyber warfare is warfare because of its obvious name or that a few of the permanent members of the UN Security Council are making the case. But what is the legal argument to justify treating cyber warfare as warfare? Let’s begin with the least disputed agreement and definition of what leads to armed conflict. It is generally accepted that â€Å"armed force† is the necessary requirement for â€Å"armed conflict†. The UN Charter Article 2(4) provides, All members [of the UN] shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any State . . .,. Exceptions are use of force authorized by the Security Council, and self-defence pursuant to Article 5 1.† Even customary law that applies to non-UN members still has the expectation of the same necessary requirement although it must be pointed out that this is only applicable to state actors (Kelsey, 2008). Non-state actors where not envisioned when the Charter was framed. Nonetheless, this is still the legal argument as it stands. Cyber warfare does not seem to meet the threshold of ‘armed force’ although many would argue otherwise. And it is this argument that is usually translated into the foreign policy of some states  (Gompert & Libicki, 2014). Even the UN Charter Article 51 still proposes that a response to attack is only justified if the initial or first attack is an armed attack. As it stands today, cyber warfare is not recognised as a legitimate war just in the same way that the ‘War on Terror’ is not a legitimate war but a cornerstone of US foreign policy. By extension, it stands to reason that a cyber attack is not in reality an attack recognised by the UN (Droege., 2012). Ultimately the view of whether an act is a cyber attack or part of cyber warfare is merely one that is only determined by the recipient of the act and how they choose to respond; through dialogue or retaliation? In addition, the judgement of the international community plays a significant part even though state actors often form alliances that ensures that an attack on one nation state could be an attack on the entire alliance; e.g. a cyber attack on a NATO member state. Not having a legal basis for an action does not in any way imply that it is not treated as a conflict or war. We only have to look at the U.S. justifications for bombing, Iraq, Afghanistan and Syria in clear violation of the U.N. Charter; none of these states had perpetrated an armed attack against the U.S. The international community enjoined the U.S. even though other states had pointed out at the clear hypocrisy being committed by the U.S. If one is to consider cyber warfare and cyber attacks, then answering the legal question is insufficient. One must refer to the prevailing theory of international relations one subscribes to or comment on wider matters governing a state’s behaviour. This dissertation will look at empirical examples of cyber warfare. Global Cyber warfare: China vs US In todays information age, the Peoples Republic of China has replaced and even improved upon KGB methods of industrial espionage to the point that the Peoples Republic of China now presents one of the most capable threats to U.S. technology leadership and by extension its national security.Dan Verton, Cyber Warfare Expert (Hjortdal, 2011) It is easy to forget that in 1820, Greece had revolted against the Ottoman Empire, Britain had opened the first modern railway and was on its way to an exploding industrial revolution, Brazil had nervously declared independence from Portugal and that China was the world’s superpower with the largest share of global GDP. In fact, it is easy to forget because history has been written specifically to gloss over these facts. Western academia has repeatedly highlighted China as a collective of starved, dispossessed and slaughtered people and not a prosperous, dynamic and global power from 1100 – 1820. From 1078, China was the world’s major producer of steel, the world’s leader in technical innovations, the world’s leading trading nation, possessed the largest commercial ships and these are just to mention a few. Few academics would now dispute that China was the world’s hyperpower for 800 years before the rise of British imperialism in the 19th century. Western imperialism and China’s decline has been documented in detail which this book cannot do justice to. The rise of Chinese economic and political strength is unquestionably due to the Communist Party of China which began when the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of Communist Party of China adopted a reform policy triggering the private sector[3].   Since 1978, entrepreneurship has driven the Chinese economy and the economic and political changes since then remain unprecedented. So transformative has this change been that China is now a threat to the US in the information superhighway. A recent event in 2016 puts this threat into context. China builds world’s fastest supercomputer without U.S. chips â€Å"China on Monday revealed its latest supercomputer, a monolithic system with 10.65 million compute cores built entirely with Chinese microprocessors. This follows a U.S. government decision last year to deny China access to Intels fastest microprocessors. There is no U.S.-made system that comes close to the performance of Chinas new system, the Sunway TaihuLight. Its theoretical peak performance is 124.5 petaflops, according to the latest biannual release today of the worlds Top500 supercomputers. It is the first system to exceed 100 petaflops. A petaflop equals one thousand trillion (one quadrillion) sustained floating-point operations per second.†ComputerWorld (June 20, 2016 http://www.computerworld.com/article/3085483/high-performance-computing/china-builds-world-s-fastest-supercomputer-without-u-s-chips.html) It has earlier been argued that cyberspace is open to both state actors and non-state actors. Because actions can be taken by an individual in a state, it is extremely hard to prove culpability of the state. In other words, a cyber attack from a computer in China in no way implies that the cyber attack was orchestrated by the Chinese state. Proving culpability is extremely hard and this fact alone hinders the argument that cyber warfare could be a new arena of conflict. Having said this, the media is awash with stories of Chinese cyber attacks on the U.S. but it is always lacking in evidence. Ironically, one never hears of U.S. cyber attacks on China or at the very least the mainstream media never reports it. Despite China’s repeated denials of culpability and its demand for proof that its citizens are responsible for cyber attacks on U.S. interests, the U.S. have taken the bold step in 2011 to issue a statement from the National Counterintelligence Executive that China is the â€Å"most active and persistent perpetrator of cyber intrusions into the United States† (Heginbotham, 2015).    As there are no clearly defined rules on cyber warfare, any escalation of tensions between China and the U.S. could be construed and framed in the words of a potential conflict similar to the rhetoric that started and fuelled the Cold War between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. This Cold War metaphor is how commentators are viewing the Cyber race between China and the U.S. According to President Barack Obama’s 2011 Cyberspace Policy Review, â€Å"cybersecurity risks pose some of the most serious economic and national security challenges of the 21st century† (Solis, 2014). This rhetoric is backed up by the steps the U.S. has taken to secure its strategic advantage in the domain. In 2009, the U.S. created the Cyber Command under the National Security Agency (NSA) with the express purpose of putting cyber warfare in the forefront of its military and defensive strategy. In addition, the Department of Defence (DoD) also has the Pentagon Strategy for Operating in Cyberspace with China clearly set in its sights. These aggressive overtures by the U.S. have not been ignored. According to the Chinese Ministry of Public Security, they are of the opinion that cyber attacks on Chinese computer installations grow at a rate of 80% annually making China the largest and most venerable recipient of cyber attacks   (Robinson, et al., 2015). To put it into context, in 2011, China succumbed to a cyber attack where 100 million usernames, passwords and emails were leaked unto the internet. What is commonly acknowledge is that the U.S. practically controls the entire internet and other states are using every means possible to reduce the influence of that control and threat even though the US was instrumental in the development of the internet. For the global internet to be fully operational, it requires 13 root serves. 10 of the 13 are based in the US and the other 3 are based in Japan, Sweden and the Netherlands. ICANN, the body that authorises domain names and designations is based in the U.S. With these facts in mind, the U.S. has the most potential to turn cyber space into a cyber threat. At least that is the argument posed by China and they insist on being able to protect their national interests. With both sides staking a national interest priority, it is not surprising that cyber warfare could be the next arena between the U.S. and China (Lieberthal & Singer, 2012). Global Cyber warfare: Russia vs the rest of the world The Russians view cyber and cyberspace in completely contradictory terms to the U.S. and the West in general. First and foremost, the Russians do not generally refer to the term cyber as a distinct concept in the way political theorists in the West do. Russia, and to some extent China, have a wider understanding of information and its control regardless of the medium chosen. So, given its long history with controlling information about and through the state during the era of the Soviet Union, electronic information is just one conduit or category of information that can be utilized, manipulated and harnessed for the greater good of the state. That is to say that the notion of cyber is just another mechanism by which information is relayed and does not take priority over other mechanisms in importance just in practical relevance. In Russian military doctrine, information and disinformation go hand in hand and are tools used by the state apparatus to achieve a desired objective for its citizens or against its adversaries. It is utilized with judicious foresight towards a purpose in addition to other traditional methods and processes. In practical terms, if information (or disinformation) helps another weapon to tool, then Russian military theorists see electronic information merely as an enabler or facilitator. Therefore information is relevant to already established practices of the state such as disinformation operations, electronic warfare, Psychology Operations (also known as PsyOps), political subversion and subterfuge, economic warfare etc. According to (Carr, 2011), â€Å"this is stated clearly in the Military Doctrine of the Russian Federation (2010) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. features of modern military conflicts is the prior implementation of measures of information warfare in order to achieve political objectives without the utilization of military force and, subsequently, in the interest of shaping a favourable response from the world community to the utilization of military force.†Carr, 2011 Cyber warfare, according to Russian theorists, is just information warfare by another means but more efficient than other types of information warfare. Cyber warfare is a legitimate tool of the state, so the argument goes, in peacetime and in conflict. It does not hold a special prominence like it does in the U.S. Cyber warfare is regulated to accompanying other tools of the state but given its nature, it has no set rules, no boundaries, no prescribed limits and no real restrictions or applications. Such a view is diametrically opposite to that of the concept of cyberspace held in the West. In support of this theory, the Russian state apparatus is structured quite differently from the U.S. Cyberspace and cyber warfare started under the remit of the Federal Security Service (Federal’naya Sluzhba Bezopastnosti: FSB) which was tasked with initiating information and disinformation wars using whatever means necessary including cyber warfare. The FSB also maintains and controls SORM, the State’s internal cyber surveillance system. In addition to the FSB, The Federal Service for Supervision in the Sphere of Telecommunications, Information Technologies and Mass Communications (Roskomnadzor), is also tasked with controlling the civilian media, telecommunications, the internet, the radio and any electronic media. Russia’s strategy of seeing cyber warfare as a continuation of normal political and military overtures was witnessed in the war with Georgia in 2008  (Robinson, et al., 2015). To date, Russia is still the only country to use all three of military, economic and cyber warfare on an adversary in the international arena. Russia had a two-pronged attack when it used military weapons and cyber warfare to defeat Georgia. Similarly, in its conflict with Ukraine in 2014, its conventional use of military weapons and cyber warfare resulted in Ukrainian government websites being shut down, massive ‘denial of service’ attacks being reported and energy installations being hacked into. This is the first of many of these sorts of ‘total warfare’ that will continue in the new future. One only has to read newspaper reports of cyber attacks occurring on a daily basis. But does this constitute a new arena of conflict? I think given what is already going on in conflicts around the world, the question has already been answered. Whether by design or accident, states are using cyber warfare as a tool against their adversary  (Lieberthal & Singer, 2012). World’s first Cyber War No other body of research could be more persuasive that presenting details of the world’s first cyber war to support the argument that cyber warfare is now a new arena of conflict. The first known incident of an entire country being subjected to an all out cyber war was Estonia. To understand the gravity of this event is to look at the history of Estonia.   Estonia was controlled by the Soviet Union for nearly 50 years and obtained its independence in 1991. Then it was a desolate country which has been starved of infrastructure and economic development. With a population of just under 2 million, it has carved a future for itself as one of the most wired and technological advanced countries in the world. It is truly a model of a smart country with widespread ecommerce and e-government services almost unparalleled anywhere in the world. As a state once controlled by the Soviets until 1991, the country is punctuated with Soviet history and struggle. The capital city, Tallinn, had monuments erected to the Soviet soldiers who fought and died in the struggle to keep Germany out of Russia. Estonia, as it is their right, decided to move the monument to a cemetery which met angry objections from Russian leaders and the large Russian community that grew out of a 50 year occupation. Russia saw Estonia as a symbol of struggle and the Estonians saw Russia as a symbol of oppression. After altercations in the city centre following the removal of the monument, Estonia found that its entire electronic infrastructure was disrupted. The state administration was paralysed, banks and companies had to freeze their operations, the internet was practically down and nothing was working. Culpability was had to prove but it was the first recorded total cyber war against a state. Again, there is no proof that the perpetrators were state spon sored or indeed it was a malicious attack but the timing and the magnitude points to more than a criminal cohort (there was no financial advantage gained in the event) and to a state sponsored cyber attack. More importantly, Estonians pointed the finger at Russia and being members of NATO, they retained the prerogative to invoke Article 5 of NATO: an attack against one is an attack against all. Postscript If there was any uncertainty about cyber warfare becoming the new arena of conflict then the headlines below might seem ominous as they are similar to the headlines that preceded the First World War and the Second World War. And these were in just over 3 days. â€Å"Malta accuses Russia of cyber-attacks in run-up to election The embattled Maltese government has claimed that it has come under attack from a Russian-backed campaign to undermine it, amid worsening relations with the Kremlin. Malta assumed the presidency of Europe’s Council of Ministers in January, an important position under which it chairs high-level meetings in Brussels and sets Europe’s political agenda. Since then, the Maltese government’s IT systems have seen a rise in attacks, according to a source working within its information technology agency, a government body. He claimed the attacks, which have increased ahead of next month’s general election, are designed to damage the government. â€Å"In the last two quarters of last year and the first part of this year, attacks on our servers have increased,† the source said.†Ã‚  (Doward, 2017) â€Å"Trump executive order aims to protect US from ‘catastrophic’ cyber attack US President Donald Trump this month signed an executive order that aims to increase protection for US essential services in case of a cyber attack that results in catastrophic regional or national effects on public health or safety, economic security, or national security†. (Kuchler, 2017) Nth Korea launches cyber attacks on US North Koreas main spy agency has a special cell called Unit 180 that is likely to have launched some of its most daring and successful cyber attacks, according to defectors, officials and internet security experts. North Korea has been blamed in recent years for a series of online attacks, mostly on financial networks, in the United States, South Korea and over a dozen other countries. Cyber security researchers have also said they have found technical evidence that could link North Korea with the global WannaCry ransomware cyber attack that infected more than 300,000 computers in 150 countries this month.   Pyongyang has called the allegation ridiculous. (Reuters, 2017) The research question of whether cyber warfare is a new arena of conflict is probably not in any doubt. The argument reverts back to the beginning of this research when examined the realist approach to international relations. Even if one were to look at the vast number of institutions in the international system and make a please for calmer heads prevailing, the realpolitik of current geopolitics shows that cyber attacks can, and will most likely, be used as a pretext and as a tool of war. 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The party decided that China should start shift its economic focus from class struggle-oriented to economic construction-oriented, from semi-rigid/rigid to comprehensive reform, and, from semi-closed/closed to opening up.Invalid source specified.